The Phoenicians, a confederation of maritime traders, emerged from the Levant approximately 3,100 years ago, establishing the most extensive commercial network of antiquity. Despite their significant contributions to boatbuilding, navigation, town planning, and the development of an alphabet, few written records have survived, primarily consisting of funerary inscriptions.
Carthage, founded around the ninth century B.C. in present-day Tunisia, was the most powerful and prosperous of the Phoenician city-states. The Carthaginians, known as the Punic people, built an empire that extended across northeastern Africa and into southern Spain. Their rivalry with Rome culminated in three Punic Wars, ending in 146 B.C. with the destruction of Carthage, including its libraries, by the Romans.
For over 2,000 years, it was widely believed that the Carthaginians originated from the Levant, particularly Canaan, which influenced their language and religion. However, a recent eight-year study published in Nature indicates that from the sixth to the second centuries B.C., Levantine Phoenicians contributed minimally to the genetic makeup of Punic colonies.
David Reich, a geneticist at Harvard, noted that while Phoenicians preserved their culture and commercial lifestyle, they mixed with people of different ancestries upon settling in new regions. An international research team analyzed DNA from 210 individuals, including 196 from sites identified as Phoenician and Punic across the Levant, North Africa, Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia, and Ibiza. The study found that the Phoenicians did not intermix equally with all populations they encountered.
Dr. Reich stated that the majority of the ancestry of the Phoenicians studied was Greek, suggesting significant intermingling with Greek populations in Sicily. Dalit Regev, an archaeologist, emphasized that the mobility of Aegean people contributed to the expansion of both Greek and Phoenician cultures.
Before 400 B.C., Phoenicians from the western Mediterranean in North Africa exhibited simple genetic profiles, while post-400 B.C. remains showed limited North African ancestry in Phoenicians found in Sicily, Sardinia, and Iberia, possibly reflecting Carthage's growing influence.
In contrast, Greek colonists did not integrate with local populations, maintaining their cultural identity. Historical accounts indicate that while Phoenicians may have traveled to Carthage, their overall migration to the city-state was likely minimal.
Dexter Hoyos, an expert on Carthage, noted that both male and female settlers likely formed partnerships with local populations. Marriages between Carthaginian nobles and local princes have been documented, suggesting a blending of cultures.
The study's findings align with existing theories about demographic shifts around the sixth century B.C., marked by the adoption of a new dialect and changes in burial practices. Dr. Reich highlighted the need for further research to understand the implications of these cultural changes.
While the study's sample size limits broad generalizations, historian Eve MacDonald emphasized the importance of expanding our understanding of ancient identities beyond simplistic narratives. The results indicate that being Carthaginian was not solely defined by genetics, but by a complex interplay of cultural and familial ties.